Creativity

'Fostering creativity in design and technology at Key Stage 3 (11-14 years).

Marion Rutland

This Guide focuses on research into the professional practices of secondary D&T teachers in fostering pupils' creativity in design and technology (D&T) at Key Stage 3. It is based on the research and findings for a PhD thesis (Rutland, 2005). The key research question was:

‘To what extent can teachers foster creativity in design and technology classrooms?’

The main premise was that teachers can impact on the development of their pupils' creativity to a greater or lesser degree. The Robinson Report (1999) suggested that pupils' creativity had become a low priority in the education system and that the Education Reform Act (1988), by introducing a school inspection system and national 'league tables' had emphasised achieving good results at the expense of pupils' creativity.

An international literature review in the field of psychology was carried out to attempt to define creativity, though this proved to be a complex matter. The consensus was that 'big creativity’ is when something of enduring value is developed that contributes to an existing field of knowledge and transforms it, whereas 'small creativity', though equally valuable gives a fresh and lively interpretation to an issue (Feldman et al, 1994).

The views of Amabile (1983, 1996) proved to be highly influential as she highlighted the impact of specific social factors and intrinsic motivation on creativity. She described creativity as the confluence of intrinsic, or self-motivation, domain-relevant knowledge and abilities, and creativity-relevant skills. These skills relate to strategies and approaches that the teacher teaches pupils. This multi-component approach emphasises the importance of the environment, as stressed by Amabile (1983, 1989, 1996) and highlighted that creativity only occurs when the three features converge (Csikszentmihalyi, 1994, 1999 and Feldman, et al. 1994).

The aim of the research was to develop a theoretical three-feature model to collect and analyse data that highlighted good classroom practice and fostered pupils’ creativity.

In the model for creativity the three features were:

1. Domain relevant features - a set of practices associated with an area of knowledge, for example D&T or other subjects such as science, mathematics.
2. Process-relevant features - influencing, controlling the direction and progress of the creative process.
3. Social, environmental features - macro/micro environmental, social and cultural issues.

Where D&T was the research focus, the following four criteria for creativity were identified as:

• The concept or idea – has the designer proposed a concept that is original, novel, feasible, useful, will function etc?
• Aesthetic creativity – has the designer made proposals about those features of the product that will appeal to the senses, for example, sight, hearing, touch, taste and smell? Is there something about these proposals that is particularly novel and attractive?
• Technical creativity – has the designer made proposals about the way the product will work, and the nature of the components and materials required to achieve this? Is there something about these proposals that is novel or elegant?
• Constructional creativity – has the designer made proposals about the way the product will be constructed, and the tools and processes needed to achieve this? Is there something about these proposals that is novel or original?

The research methods used included naturalistic, semi-structured observational studies and semi-structured interviews.

The key research question for the study was:

'To what extent can teachers foster creativity in D&T classrooms?’

Three 'sub' research questions were developed to explore the issues identified in the literature review.

Sub-research Question 1:

'What can D&T teachers learn about teaching for creativity from the practices of Art & Design (A&D) teachers and professional designers?'

Creativity in A&D and D&T was initially explored through a joint Nuffield and Qualifications & Curriculum Authority (QCA) Project, Creativity in A&D and D&T case study. In early 2000 twenty A&D and D&T UK teachers for pupils aged 5-16 were invited to a meeting at the Nuffield Curriculum Centre. They discussed and presented examples of their work within A&D and D&T.

In Autumn 2000 six A&D and four D&T teachers planned, taught, documented and assessed a unit of work for their pupils across the age range of 5-16 years. During November and December 2000 half day visits were made to three primary and three secondary schools for Art and Design (A&D) and two primary and two secondary schools for D&T.

Findings:

Constraints were common for A&D and D&T, e.g. lack of time, large classes, the impact of National Curriculum and school inspections, costs and examination board requirements. One A&D teacher commented that the pupils needed aesthetic, creative abilities together with construction skills.

There are common factors in teaching for creativity in A&D and D&T:

• an ability to integrate teaching strategies, approaches that fostered pupils' creativity into their lesson aims and objectives.
• a supportive school ethos, local environment.
• well-qualified teachers.
• The development of technical and constructional creativity was generally the focus for D&T teachers, especially in the lower secondary school.

These were considered ‘important’ by A&D teachers but the importance of aesthetic creativity and the need for pupil choice and decision-making were highlighted. More importance was placed on allowing pupils to make their own design decisions, being given reflection time for thinking through their ideas and developing aesthetic criteria.

In contrast to A&D, a key factor for secondary D&T teaching, was the type of design brief frequently set. There was restrictive and 'closed down' creative thinking from the beginning of the 'project'. Pupils are going to design and make a '…….'. Particularly in the lower secondary, the context and the use of interesting and visual stimuli was not of high importance and the teachers did not value motivating pupils by exploring, observing and considering different, but relevant, outcomes.

In secondary D&T the design activities used were generally limited and did not include group work or developing knowledge and skills alongside opportunities for making design decisions to produce originality. The teaching strategies used in D&T, unlike as found in A&D, had more in common with the 'hegemonic' style (Murphy, 2003). This was not the situation in the primary schools where the pedagogical tradition of group activities and the use of a range of teaching strategies were common practice for both A&D and D&T teachers.

Sub-research Question 2

'What is the present situation in fostering creativity in Key Stage 3 (11-14 years) D&T classrooms?'

An urban, mixed comprehensive school for pupils aged 1-16 years was approached to take part in the study. It was agreed that the researcher would study a mixed ability D&T Year 8 class with 17 pupils (nine boys and eight girls), taught by 2 teachers in their D&T focus areas: systems and control and food technology.

Four pupils, two boys and two girls were identified representing the ability range of abilities and they were asked to keep a design diary. Course booklets were used by both groups.

Units of work

'The Grabber' – focused on mechanisms and pneumatics modelling a pneumatically driven processing machine in a 'Mars bar' factory. In the early sessions the pupils were given a course booklet and learnt about and modelled types of levers and pneumatic systems using syringes and tubing. They then developed, made and tested their own 'grabber' in lessons 6 and 7.

'Food functions and healthy eating' – focused on learning about the functions of food ingredients, packaging and environmental issues and consisted of two parts. The first five weeks looked at ‘The functions of ingredients/packaging and labelling’ and included a wide range of practical activities. The second four weeks focused on the development of a product for a ‘Healthy lunch box’.

Findings:

• In both units there was a teacher led discussion at the end of the lesson to evaluate progress and highlight key issues relevant for future lessons. A summary of lesson observations from the two Year 8 units of work were mapped against the three-feature model for creativity.
• In Unit a) ‘The Grapper’ each of the lessons were structured so that a group of pupils worked on a bench with four to five pupils, but each pupil worked individually. They were encouraged to ask the teacher rather than co-operate as a group or move around the workshop talking to each other.
• In Unit b) ‘Food functions and healthy living’ the approach was more varied; the class was taught together by the teacher and the pupils worked on their own but were more often in co-operative groups. There were limited opportunities planned for pupils in Unit a) to share and discuss their work, but in Unit b) they were encouraged to develop this aspects further with their peers in class discussion. In both classes the teachers moved around the room supporting and giving guidance to pupils.
• Results indicated that pupils' creativity at Key Stage 3 was not a high priority, though the limitations of a piece of small-scale research was acknowledged. It was suggested that there are a large group of teachers, who are willing to adopt strategies to fostering their pupils' creativity if they are convinced of the benefits and provided with guidance of how to integrate them into their classroom practice.
• Essential criteria for creativity in design and technology were identified, as were the processes to foster creativity and the environment that is favourable to enhancing pupils' creativity. It was concluded that the role of the teacher is crucial in organising and managing a classroom environment that is stimulating, flexible, motivating and conducive to risk taking.

Sub-research Question 3.

‘What strategies can be used by D&T teachers when teaching for creativity in the classroom?

Interviews with four ‘expert’ teachers aimed to explore their understanding of creativity. They represented product design, food technology, systems and control and textiles technology. They were experienced D&T teachers known for their interest and intuitive ability to foster originality and creativity. The interviews identified successful practices that had been used in the classroom and were mapped against the three-feature model for creativity.

Findings.

• There needs be a balance between aesthetic, technical and constructive criteria, with more emphasis on aesthetic.
• Creative, heuristic problem solving was valued more than a focus on teaching skills.
• Curriculum planning should include a ‘creativity’ learning objective.
• Progression is essential from the 7-8 to the 11-14 age range with an understanding of ‘creative’ teaching approaches used in primary schools.
• Formative assessment aids creativity as it feeds and develops pupil’s thinking and designing.
• Pupils should be taught to communicate and develop their ideas through a range of strategies.
• Traditional design folders were questioned. No expert teacher favoured class course booklets and sets of written tasks.
• A framework of strategies to aid pupil motivation and stimulation is required.
• A relaxed, calm, positive, secure classroom environment is required for pupils to have the confidence to take risks.

Interviews with four professional and industrial designers: graphic and textiles designers, a food technologist and electronics designer.

The interviews were held in the work environment and the interviewees were encouraged to use a recent design-based project as the context for their thoughts. This included reference to a programme developed by Rolls Royce plc, a large aeronautical company to help develop a ‘creative’ culture in their workforce. The focus was what could D&T teachers could learn from the practices of industrial companies.

Findings

It was concluded that there are several factors where the activities of the professional designers can inform D&T teachers when teaching for creativity.

• Conceptual originality was important for professional designers in the early stages of a project through original interpretations of a real-life context with the use of primary and secondary stimuli. A range of strategies used to foster creativity included making connections, modelling, spatial mapping, original research, and observation.
• The development of aesthetic creativity is a key issue and includes being aware of shape, appearance, colour, taste, form and texture. D&T pupils use effectively, their personal senses through observation and experimentation.
• Technical creativity, including knowledge of materials and components is essential for successful, creative product design and development.
• Constructional creativity is not always a key issue for professional designers, as other people may complete this aspect. However, designing is a complete process and knowledge of 'constructional' aspects are essential both for designers and pupils.
• Creative, heuristic problem solving is a cyclical process. Professional designers organised and managed this process carefully with 'dwell' time for ideas to incubate and develop.
• Professional designers work effectively in customer-led product development. Working within the constraints of a National Curriculum and the ethos of individual schools should not be reasons for work lacking creativity.
• Personal characteristics play an important role in the professional designer's ability to work creatively. These include the ability to be self-motivating, concentrate and open to new ideas.
• Professional designers have specific areas of expertise and work as specialists in a team, unlike pupils in the lower secondary school who cover the complete design process. There should be opportunities to experience working in 'design teams' in the lower secondary curriculum.
• Social influences such as relevant education and expertise are considered important by designers. Teachers have a vital role to play in developing such expertise through explicit teaching of skills and knowledge.
• Security and the ability to communicate and work as part of a team are key factors for the professional designer. A supportive, well-organised physical and social environment in the classroom would help develop pupil's confidence to take risks and deal with uncertainty.
• An ability to handle conflicting demands, transfer knowledge and skills and manage space and time are important for designers.

Conclusions and recommendations

Designing as a creative activity used by professional designers, includes the three phases of analysis, synthesis and evaluation and is a combination of procedural and conceptual knowledge (de Vries, 2005). However, there is an issue of whether pupils as ‘novice’ designers in the context of a school classroom, can rely solely on learning the process of ‘designing’ to ensure their creativity potential.

Creativity occurs when several dimensions coincide, sometimes known as ‘the creativity intersection’ (Amabile, 1989: 63). The features that are necessary for creative activity include sound domain, subject knowledge and skills, process relevant features. Designing is an interactive, iterative creative problem-solving heuristic process.

Pupils need to develop vision, confidence with a willingness to take risks, motivation and ability to be proactive and an independent thinker. Teachers will be required to plan interesting, open-ended schemes of work in relevant contexts, using a range of strategies to motivate, empower and help develop appropriate skills. They need to give pupils opportunities for ‘dwell’ time to reflect and collaborate with their peers.

Designing is a creative activity used by professional designers; however, there are issues of whether pupils, as novice designers, can rely solely on learning the process of ‘designing’ to ensure their creativity potential in the context of a school classroom.

As a complex concept, creativity depends on the convergence of several features. These include sound domain or subject knowledge and skills; process-relevant features that control the direction and progress of the creative process and the social and environmental features that ensure a supportive, conducive environment that enables pupil to be confidence, motivated and able to take risk.

The role of the teacher in ensuring pupils’ creativity is crucial in that they need to plan interesting open-ended units of work, give pupils opportunities to make design decisions, ‘dwell time’ for reflection and plan the effective use of resources and space. It suggests that collaboration between teachers of A&D and D&T would be beneficial in the quest for creativity, within the context of appreciating the similarities and differences of the subjects. 

References, Conference Papers and Journal Articles

Amabile, T. (1983) The Social Psychology of Creativity, New York: Springer-Verlag.

Amabile, T. (1989) Growing up Creative: Nurturing a Lifetime of Creativity, New York: The Creative Education Foundation

Amabile, T. (1996) Creativity in Context: Update to the Social Psychology of Creativity, Colorado, USA: West View Press.

Barlex, D. Ed. (2003) Creativity in Crisis? Nuffield Foundation, Design and Technology Association, Wellesbourne: DATA.

Cross, N. (2000) Engineering Design Methods Third Edition, Chichester: John Willey.

Csikszentmihalyi, M. (1994) The domain of creativity, in Feldman, D., Csikszentmihalyi, M. and Gardner, H. Changing the World: A Framework for the Study of Creativity, West Point Connecticut: Praeger.

Csikszentmihalyi, M. (1999) ‘Implications of a Systems Perspective’, in Sternberg R. ed., Handbook of Creativity, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

De Vries, M. J. (2005) Teaching about technology: An introduction of the philosophy of technology for non-philosophers, The Netherlands, Springer.

Education Reform Act (1988) UK Public Acts. Available from: Education Reform Act 1988 (legislation.gov.uk). Accessed 26.07.24

Feldman, D., Csikszentmihalyi, M., & Gardner, H. (1994). Changing the world: A framework for the study of creativity. West Point Connecticut: Praeger.

Murphy, P. (2003) The Place of Pedagogy . In Creativity in Crisis, Barlex, D. Ed. Wellesbourne: Nuffield Foundation, Design and Technology Association.

Robinson, K. (1999) All our Futures: Creativity, Culture & Education, London: DfEE

Rutland, M. (2002) What can we learn about creativity from the practice of professional designers to inform design and technology classroom practice? In Design and Technology Association Research Conference, April 12-14, pp 153-159.

Rutland, M (2003) How do we show in design and technology that we value creativity? In PATT-13 (Pupils' Attitude Towards Technology) International Conference, 'The place of design and technology in the curriculum', Scotland: University of Glasgow, pp 71-83.

Rutland, M. (2005) Fostering creativity in design and technology at Key Stage 3. Unpublished PhD Thesis, Roehampton University: University of Surrey.

Rutland, M. (2007) The place of creativity in technological literacy: the role of teaching resources in fostering pupils’ creativity. In PATT-15 Pupils' Attitude Towards Technology International Conference, Glasgow, Scotland, June 2007, pp 313-323, ISBN 987-0-85261-828-8

Rutland, M, Barlex, D (2002) The relationship between art and design and design and technology in the English curriculum with reference to creativity. In Technology Education in the Curriculum: Relationships with Other Subjects, PATT-12 International Conference, Columbus, OHIO, USA.

Rutland, M., Barlex, D. (2008) Perspectives on pupil creativity in design and technology in the lower secondary curriculum in England. In the International Journal of Technology and Design Education 18, 139–165. Perspectives on pupil creativity in design and technology in the lower secondary curriculum in England | International Journal of Technology and Design Education (springer.com)