Dyslexia: Single page view
Dyslexia
Professor Angela Fawcett, Liz Horobin, Dr Kate Saunders| View as single page | Feedback/Impact
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Evidence Background Signposting for further intervention/assessment Case studies Areas for further research Online Communities |
Dyslexia: What the beginning teacher needs to know
This Guide is designed to provide beginning teachers with a brief overview of current research in the field of dyslexia and a range of strategies for identifying and supporting dyslexic learners in the classroom. It also provides information and advice on when to signpost for further assessment and intervention.
Websites
The following UK based websites provide evidence supporting the content of this MESH Guide.
Also see the website for the European Dyslexia Association.
References
For ease of access, this cell provides a list of all websites, online and published materials referred to in this Guide. They are organized according to the cell block where they are mentioned.
2.1 What is dyslexia
Websites
2.2 Theories of dyslexia.
Theories and contextual issues. Professor Angela Fawcett
References
Bradley, L. & Bryant, P.E. (1983). Categorising sounds and learning to read: A causal connection. Nature, 301, 419-421
Clarke, P. Hulme, C and Snowling M (2005). Individual differences in RAN and reading: a response timing analysis. Journal of research in reading. 28, 73-86.
Denckla, M. B., & Rudel, R. G. (1976a). Rapid 'Automatized' naming (R.A.N.). Dyslexia differentiated from other learning disabilities. Neuropsychologia, 14, 471-479.
Eden, G.F., Vanmeter, J.W., Rumsey, J.M., Maisog, J.M., Woods, R.P. & Zeffiro, T.A. (1996). Abnormal processing of motion in dyslexia revealed by functional brain imaging. Nature, 382, 66-69.
Fawcett, A. J., Nicolson, R. I. & Dean, P. (1996). Impaired performance of children with dyslexia on a range of cerebellar tasks. Annals of Dyslexia, 46, 259-283.
Fawcett, A. J. & Nicolson, R. I. (1999). Performance of dyslexic children on cerebellar and cognitive tests. Journal of Motor Behavior, 31, 68-78.
Fawcett, A.J., Maclagan, F and Nicolson, R. I (2001). Cerebellar tests differentiate between poor readers with and without IQ discrepancy. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 34, 2, 119-135.
Finch, A.J., Nicolson, R.I., and Fawcett, A.J. (2001). Evidence for an anatomical difference within the cerebella of dyslexic brains. Submitted to Cortex
Frith, U. (1997). Brain, mind and behaviour in dyslexia. In C. Hulme and M. Snowling (Eds.), Dyslexia: Biology, cognition and intervention. Whurr: London.
Fulbright, R. K., Jenner, A. R., Mencl, W. E., Pugh, K. R., Shaywitz, B. A., Shaywitz, S. E., Frost, S. J., Skudlarski, P., Constable, R. T., Lacadie, C. M., Marchione, K. E., & Gore, J. C. (1999). The cerebellum's role in reading: A functional MR imaging study. American Journal of Neuroradiology, 20, 1925-1930.
Galaburda, A.M., Menard, A.M. and Rosen, G.D. (1994). Evidence for aberrant auditory anatomy in developmental dyslexia. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the USA, 91, 8010-8013.
Hulme C, Goetz K, Gooch D, Adams J and Snowling MJ (2007) Paired associate learning, phoneme awareness and learning to read. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology. 96,150-166
Ivry, R.B. and Keele, S.W. (1989). Timing functions of the cerebellum. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 1, 136-152.
Livingstone, M.S., Rosen, G.D., Drislane, F.W., & Galaburda, A.M. (1991). Physiological and anatomical evidence for a magnocellular deficit in developmental dyslexia. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the USA, 88, 7943-7947
Lovegrove, W. J., Garzia, R. P., & Nicholson, S. B. (1990) Experimental evidence of a transient system deficit in specific reading disability. Journal of the American Optometric Association, 61, 137-146.
Nicolson, R.I and Fawcett, A.J. (1990) Automaticity: a new framework for dyslexia research? Cognition, 30, 159-182.
Nicolson, R.I and Fawcett, A.J. (1994a) Reaction Times and Dyslexia. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology: 47A, 29-48.
Nicolson, R.I. and Fawcett, A.J. (1994b). Comparison of deficits in cognitive and motor skills in children with dyslexia. Annals of Dyslexia, 44, 147-164.
Nicolson, R.I., Fawcett, A.J. and Dean, P. (1995). Time estimation deficits in developmental dyslexia: Evidence for cerebellar involvement. Proceedings of the Royal Society: Biological Sciences, 259, 43-47.
Nicolson, R.I., Fawcett, A.J., Berry, E.L., Jenkins, H., Dean, P. and Brooks, D.J. (1999). Association of abnormal cerebellar activation with motor learning difficulties in dyslexic adults. The Lancet, 353, 1162-7.
Nicolson, R.I., Fawcett, A.J., & Dean, P. (2001). Developmental dyslexia: The cerebellar deficit hypothesis. Trends in Neurosciences. 24, 506-514.
Nicolson, R. I., Daum, I., Schugens, M. M., Fawcett, A. J., & Schulz, A. (2001). Abnormal eyeblink conditioning for dyslexic children. Experimental Brain Research, submitted
Paulesu, E., Frith, U., Snowling, M., Gallagher, A., Morton, J., Frackowiak, R. S. J., & Frith, C. D. (1996). Is developmental dyslexia a disconnection syndrome? Evidence from PET scanning. Brain, 119, 143-157
Skottun, B. C. The magnocellular deficit theory of dyslexia: the evidence from contrast sensitivity. Vision Research, 40, 111-127.
Snowling, M. (1995). Phonological processing and developmental dyslexia. Journal of Research in Reading, 18, 132-138
Snowling, MJ, Gallagher, A, Frith, U. (2003). Family risk of dyslexia is continuous: Individual differences in the precursors of reading skill. Child Development, 74. 358-373.
Stein, J. and Walsh, V. (1997). To see but not to read: the magnocellular theory of dyslexia. Trends in Neuroscience, 20, 147-152.
Stein, J. (2000). The neurobiology of reading difficulties. Prostaglandins Leukotrienes and Essential Fatty Acids, 63, 109-116.
Talcott, J. B., Hansen, P. C., Willis-Owen, C., McKinnell. I. W., Richardson. A. F., and Stein, J. F. (1998). Visual magnocellular impairment in adult developmental dyslexics. Neuro-opthalmology, 20, 187-201.
Tallal, P., Miller, S. and Fitch, R.H. (1993). Neurological basis of speech: A case of the preeminence of temporal processing. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 682, 27-47.
Tallal, P., Merzenich, M. M., Miller, S., & Jenkins, W. (1998). Language learning impairments: integrating basic science, technology, and remediation. Experimental Brain Research, 123, 210-219
Wolf, M. and Bowers, P.G. (1999). The double-deficit hypothesis for the developmental dyslexias. Journal of Educational Psychology, 91,415-438.
2.3 Evidence for dyslexia.
Evidence. Professor Angela Fawcett
(www.achieveability.org.uk/files/1270740075/dfes-framework-for-understanding-dyslexia.pdf)
References
Cohen, J. (1969). Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences. New York: Academic Press
Fletcher-Campbell, F. (eds) (1996). Value-Added and special educational needs: Proceedings of EMIE/NFER seminars 28 November 1995 (Slough), 14 March 1996 (Stockport). Slough: National Foundation for Educational Research.
Saunders, L. (1998). ‘Value-added’ measurement of school effectiveness: An overview. Slough: National Foundation for Educational Research
US National Reading Panel (2001). Teaching children to read: An evidence based assessment of the scientific research literature on reading and its implications for reading instruction.
Useful websites on evidence in education and policy
www.badscience.net/2013/03/heres-my-paper-on-evidence-and-teaching-for-the-education-minister/
http://blog.wellcome.ac.uk/2013/03/04/the-evidence-for-what-works-in-education/
http://media.education.gov.uk/assets/files/pdf/b/ben%20goldacre%20paper.pdf
www.oecd.org/edu/ceri/evidenceineducationlinkingresearchandpolicy.htm
http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0018/001834/183415e.pdf
www.oecd.org/edu/ceri/47435459.pdf
www.cem.org/evidence-based-education
2.4 Current research in dyslexia.
Recent and ongoing research. Professor Angela Fawcett
(www.achieveability.org.uk/files/1270740075/dfes-framework-for-understanding-dyslexia.pdf)
References
Clarke, P. Hulme, C and Snowling M (2005). Individual differences in RAN and reading: a response timing analysis. Journal of research in reading. 28, 73-86.
Coffin, J.M., Baroody, S., Schneider, K., & O’Neill, J. (2005). Impaired cerebellar learning in children with prenatal alcohol exposure: A comparative study of eyeblink conditioning in children with adhd and dyslexia. Cortex, 41, 389-398. Finch, A. J., Nicolson, R. I., and Fawcett, A. J. (2002) Evidence for an anatomical difference within the cerebella of dyslexic brains. Cortex, 38, 529-539
Fisher, S. E., Francks, C., Marlow, A. J., MacPhie, I. L., Newbury, D. F., Cardon, L. R., Monaco, A. P. (2001). Independent genome-wide scans identify a chromosome 18 quantitative-trait locus influencing dyslexia. Nature Genetics, 30, 86-91.
Folia, V., Uddén, J., Forkstam, C., Ingvar, M., Hagoort, P. and Petersson, K. M. (2008), Implicit Learning and Dyslexia. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1145: 132–150. doi: 10.1196/annals.1416.012
Frith, U. (1997). Brain, mind and behaviour in dyslexia. In C. Hulme and M. Snowling (Eds.), Dyslexia: Biology, cognition and intervention. Whurr: London
Galaburda, A.M., Menard, A.M. and Rosen, G.D. (1994). Evidence for aberrant auditory anatomy in developmental dyslexia. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the USA, 91, 8010-8013.
Gallagher, A., Frith, U., & Snowling, M. J. (2000). Precursors of literacy delay among children at genetic risk of dyslexia. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 41, 203-213.
Goswami, U., Thomson, J., Richardson, U., Stainthorp, R., Hughes, D., Rosen, S., & Scott, S. K. (2002). Amplitude envelope onsets and developmental dyslexia: A new hypothesis. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 99, 10911-10916.
Gaab, N., Gabrieli, J. E., Deutsch, G. K., Tallal, P. & Temple, E. (2007) Neural correlates of rapid auditory processing are disrupted in children with developmental dyslexia and ameliorated with training: An fMRI study. Restor. Neurol.Neuros. 25, 295-310
Hulme C, Goetz K, Gooch D, Adams J and Snowling MJ (2007) Paired associate learning, phoneme awareness and learning to read. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology. 96,150-166
Jobarda, G., Crivello, F., & Tzourio-Mazoyer, N. (2004). Evaluation of the dual route theory of reading: A metanalysis of 35 neuroimaging studies. Neuroimage, 20, 693– 712.
Jones, M. W., Obregon, M., Kelly, M. L., & Branigan, H. P. (2008). Elucidating the component processes involved in dyslexic and non-dyslexic reading fluency: An eye-tracking study. Cognition, 109, 389-407.
Laycock, R., & Crewther, S. G. (2008). Towards an understanding of the role of the magnocellular advantage in fluent reading. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews, 32, 1494-1506.
Laycock, SK; Wilkinson, ID; Wallis, LI Wonders, S; Fawcett, AJ et al (2009) Cerebellar Volume and Cerebellar Metabolic Characteristics in Adults with Dyslexia. Annals of the New York Academy of Science, Learning, skill acquisition, reading, and dyslexia, 1145: 222-236
Lervag, A., & Hulme, C. (2009). Rapid automatized naming (ran) taps a mechanism that places constraints on the development of early reading fluency. Psychological Science, 20, 1040-1048.
Lyytinen, H., Guttorm, T. K., Huttunen, T., Hamalainen, J., Leppanen, P. H. T., & Vesterinen, M. (2005). Psychophysiology of developmental dyslexia: a review of findings including studies of children at risk for dyslexia. Journal of Neurolinguistics, 18, 167-195.
Molfese, D. L. (2000). Predicting dyslexia at 8 years of age using neonatal brain responses. Brain and Language, 72, 238- 245.
Nicolson, R.I. and Fawcett, A.J. (2000). Long-term learning in dyslexic children European Journal of Cognitive Psychology, 12, 357-393.
Nicolson, R.I., Fawcett, A.J. and Dean, P (2001) Developmental dyslexia: the cerebellar deficit hypothesis, Trends in Neurosciences, 24, 508-512
Nicolson, R.I., Daum, I., Schugens, M. M., Fawcett, A.J., and Schulz, A. (2002) Abnormal eye blink conditioning for dyslexic children, Experimental Brain Research., 143, 42-50
Nicolson, R. I. and Fawcett, A. J. (2007). Procedural learning difficulties: reuniting the developmental disorders? Trends in Neurosciences, 30 (4), 135-141.
Pernet, C. R., Poline, J. B., Demonet, J. F., & Rousselet, G. A. (2009). Brain classification reveals the right cerebellum as the best biomarker of dyslexia. BMC Neuroscience, 10, 67. doi:10.1186/1471-2202-10-67
Powell, D., Stainthorp, R., Stuart, M., Garwood, H., & Quinlan, P. (2007). An experimental comparison between rival theories of rapid automatized naming performance and its relationship to reading. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 98, 46-68.
Ramus, F., Pidgeon, E., & Frith, U. (2003). The relationship between motor control and phonology in dyslexic children.
Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 44, 712-722.
Shaywitz, S. E., & Shaywitz, B. A. (2004). Dyslexia (specific reading disability). Biological Psychiatry, 57, 1301-1309.
Shaywitz, B. A., Shaywitz, S. E., Blachman, B. A., Pugh, K. R., Fulbright, R. K., Skudlar- ski, P., et al. (2004). Development of left occipitotemporal systems for skilled reading in children after a phonologically-based intervention. Biological Psychiatry, 55(9), 926–933.
Skottun, B. C. The magnocellular deficit theory of dyslexia: the evidence from contrast sensitivity. Vision Research, 40, 111-127.
Snowling, M., Bishop, D. V., M. & Stothard, S. E. (2000). Is preschool language impairment a risk factor for dyslexia in adolescence? Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 41, 587-600.
Snowling, MJ, Gallagher, A, Frith, U. (2003). Family risk of dyslexia is continuous: Individual differences in the precursors of reading skill. Child Development, 74. 358-373
Snowling, M. J., Muter, V. & Carroll, J. (2007). Children at family risk of dyslexia: a follow-up in early adolescence. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 48, 609-618. doi: doi:10.1111/j.1469-7610.2006.01725.x
Stoodley, C. J., & Schmahmann, J. D. (2009). Functional topography in the human cerebellum: A meta-analysis of neuro- imaging studies. NeuroImage, 44, 489-501.
Talcott, J., Hansen, P., Assoku, E. & Stein, J. (2000). Visual motion sensitivity in dyslexia: Evidence for temporal and energy integration deficits. Neuropsychologia, 38, 935-943.
Talcott, JB. (2001) Reading and dyslexia: Visual and attentional processes. Trends in Cognitive Sciences 5, 44-44
Taroyan, N. A., Nicolson, R. I. and Fawcett, A. J. (2007). Behavioural and neurophysiological correlates of dyslexia in the continuous performance task Clinical Neurophysiology, 118 (4): 845-855.
Temple, E., Deutsch, G. K., Poldrack, R. A., Miller, S. L., Tallal, P., Merzenich, M. M., & Gabrieli, J. D. E. (2003). Neural deficits in children with dyslexia ameliorated by behavioral remediation: Evidence from functional MRI. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 100, 2860-2865.
Thompson P A, Hulme C, Nash H M, Gooch D, Hayiou-Thomas E, Snowling. M J (2015) Developmental dyslexia: predicting individual risk. Journal of child psychology and psychiatry and allied disciplines 56, 976-987
Turkeltaub, P. E., Eden, G. F., Jones, K. M., & Zeffiro, T. A. (2002). Meta-analysis of the functional neuroanatomy of single- word reading: Method and validation. Neuroimage, 16, 765-780.
Valdois, S., Habib, A., & Cohen, L. (2008). The reader brain: natural and cultural story. Revue Neurologique, 164, S77-S82.
Vicari, S., Finzi, A., Menghini, D., Marotta, L., Baldi, S., & Petrosini, L. (2005). Do children with developmental dyslexia have an implicit learning deficit? Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery, and Psychiatry, 76, 1392–1397.
White, S., Frith, U., Milne, E., Rosen, S., Swettenham, J., & Ramus, F. (2006). A double dissociation between sensorimotor impairments and reading disability: A comparison of autistic and dyslexic children. Cognitive Neuropsychology, 23, 748-761.
White, S., Milne, E., Rosen, S., Hansen, P., Swettenham, J., Frith, U., & Ramus, F. (2006). The role of sensorimotor impairments in dyslexia: A multiple case study of dyslexic children. Developmental Science, 9, 237-255.
Witton, C., Stein, J. F., Stoodley, C. J., Rosner, B. S., & Talcott, J. B. (2002). Separate influences of acoustic AM and FM sensitivity on the phonological decoding skills of impaired and normal readers. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 14(6), 866–874.
Wolf, M. and Bowers, P.G. (1999). The double-deficit hypothesis for the developmental dyslexias. Journal of Educational Psychology, 91,415-438.
2.5 Co-occurring difficulties
Co-occurring difficulties. Professor Angela Fawcett
(www.achieveability.org.uk/files/1270740075/dfes-framework-for-understanding-dyslexia.pdf)
References
Bental, B., & Tirosh, E. (2008). The effects of methylphenidate on word decoding accuracy in boys with attention-deficit/ hyperactivity disorder. Journal of Clinical Psychopharmacology, 28, 89-92.
Berninger, V. W., Nielsen, K. H., Abbott, R. D., Wijsman, E., & Raskind, W. (2008). Writing problems in developmental dyslexia: Under-recognized and under-treated. Journal of School Psychology, 46, 1-21.
Bishop, D. V. M. (2002). Motor immaturity and specific speech and language impairment: Evidence for a common genetic basis. American Journal of Medical Genetics, 114, 56-63.
Butterworth, B. (1999). The Mathematical Brain. London: Macmillan.British Dyslexia Association.
Dirks, E., Spyer, G., van Lieshout, E. C., & de Sonneville, L. (2008). Prevalence of combined reading and arithmetic disabilities. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 41, 460-473.
Gooch, D., Hulme, C., Nash, H.M., and Snowling, M.J. (2014) Comorbidities in preschool children at family riskof dyslexia. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry 55:3 (2014), pp 237–246
Griffiths, C. C. (2007). Pragmatic abilities in adults with and without dyslexia: A pilot study. Dyslexia, 13, 276-296.
Haslum, M. N., & Miles, T. R. (2007). Motor performance and dyslexia in a national cohort of 10-year-old children. Dyslexia, 13, 257-275.
Iversen, S., Berg, K., Ellertsen, B., & Tonnessen, F. E. (2005). Motor coordination difficulties in a municipality group and in a clinical sample of poor readers. Dyslexia, 11, 217-231.
Jongmans, M. J., Smits-Engelsman, B. C. M., & Schoemaker, M. M. (2003). Consequences of comorbidity of developmental coordination disorders and learning disabilities for severity and pattern of perceptual-motor dysfunction. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 36, 528-537.
Kadesjo, B., & Gillberg, C. (2001). The comorbidity of ADHD in the general population of Swedish school-age children. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, and Allied Disciplines, 42, 487-492
Kaplan, B. J., Dewey, D. M., Crawford, S. G., & Wilson, B. N. (2001). The term comorbidity is of questionable value in reference to developmental disorders: Data and theory. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 34, 555-565.
Landerl, K., Fussenegger, B., Moll, K., & Willburger, E. (2009). Dyslexia and dyscalculia: Two learning disorders with different cognitive profiles. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 103, 309-324.
Miles, T. R. (1983) Dyslexia: the Pattern of Difficulties. Oxford; Blackwell.
Muter, V., & Snowling, M. J. (2009). Children at familial risk of dyslexia: Practical implications from an at-risk study. Child and Adolescent Mental Health, 14, 37-41.
Nicolson, R. I., & Fawcett, A. J. (1990). Automaticity: A new framework for dyslexia research? Cognition, 30, 159-182.
Nicolson, R. I., & Fawcett, A. J. (1994a). Comparison of deficits in cognitive and motor-skills among children with dyslexia. Annals of Dyslexia, 44, 147-164.
Nicolson, R. I., & Fawcett, A. J. (2007). Procedural learning difficulties: reuniting the developmental disorders? Trends in Neurosciences, 30, 135-141.
Nicolson, R. I., Fawcett, A. J., & Dean, P. (2001). Developmental dyslexia: The cerebellar deficit hypothesis. Trends in Neurosciences, 24, 508-511.
O'Hare, A., & Khalid, S. (2002). The association of abnormal cerebellar function in children with developmental coordination disorder and reading difficulties. Dyslexia, 8, 234-248.
Ramus, F., Rosen, S., Dakin, S. C., Day, B. L., Castellote, J. M., White, S., & Frith, U. (2003). Theories of developmental dyslexia: insights from a multiple case study of dyslexic adults. Brain, 126, 841-865
Rose, J. (2007). Rose Report on Reading. London: DfES.
Simmons, F. R., & Singleton, C. (2008). Do weak phonological representations impact on arithmetic development? A review of research into arithmetic and dyslexia. Dyslexia, 14, 77.94.
Snowling, M., Bishop, D. V., M. & Stothard, S. E. (2000). Is preschool language impairment a risk factor for dyslexia in adolescence? Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 41, 587-600.
Stein, J., & Walsh, V. (1997). To see but not to read: The magnocellular theory of dyslexia. Trends in Neuroscience, 20, 147-152.
Tomblin, J. B., Zhang, X., Buckwalter, P., & Catts, H. (2000). The association of reading disability, behavioral disorders, and language impairment among second-grade children. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, and Allied Disciplines, 41, 473-482.
Viholainen, H., Ahonen, T,. Lyytinen, P., Cantell, M., Tolvanen, A., Lyytinen, H and Mäki, N. (2006).Early motor development and later language and readingskills in children at risk of familial dyslexia, Developmental Medicine & Child Neurology 48: 367–373.
Willcutt, E. G., Pennington, B. F., Olson, R. K., & DeFries, J. C. (2007). Understanding comorbidity: A twin study of reading disability and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. American Journal of Medical Genetics.Part B, Neuropsychiatric Genetics: The Official Publication of the International Society of Psychiatric Genetics, 144B, 709-714.
Websites
Attention Deficit Disorder Association
Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder Foundation
2.6 Visual stress
Websites
www.bdadyslexia.org.uk/dyslexic/eyes-and-dyslexia
Institute of Optometry www.ioo.org.uk/
Dyslexia Research Trust www.dyslexic.org.uk
www.dystalk.com/talks/104-visual-problems-amp-dyslexia
2.7 Dyslexic strengths
http://dyslexia.yale.edu/Strengths.html
2.8 Dyslexia in languages other than English
Brunswick, N. ed. (2010) Reading and Dyslexia in Different Orthographies. Hove, Psychology Press
www.nessy.com>files>2014/06>Dyslexia and multilingualism
www.dyslexia-and-literacy.international
Paulesu E., Demonet J. F., Fazio F., McCrory E., Chanoine V., Brunswick N., et al. (2001). Dyslexia: cultural diversity and biological unity. Science 291, 2165–2167. 10.1126/science.1057179
Landerl, K. et al. (2012) Predictors of developmental dyslexia in European orthographies with varying complexity. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry.
3.1 Pre-school identification
Thompson, P.A., Hulme, C., Nash, H.M., Gooch, D., Hayiou-Thomas, E., & Snowling, M.J. (2015) Developmental dyslexia: predicting individual risk. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry 56:9, 976-987.
www.bdadyslexia.org.uk/educator/pre-school-hints-and-tips
www.nhs.uk/conditions/dyslexia/symptoms/
www.bdastore.org.uk/books/british-dyslexia-association/dyslexia-early-identification
3.2 Primary school identification
www.bdadyslexia.org.uk/educator/hints-and-tips-primary
3.3 Secondary level identification
www.bdadyslexia.org.uk/educator/hints-and-tips-secondary
3.4 Identification for adults
www.bdadyslexia.org.uk/screening
www.bdadyslexia.org.uk/advice/adults/am-i-dyslexic/signs-of-dyslexia
www.bdadyslexia.org.uk/educator/what-are-specific-learning-difficulties
www.bdadyslexia.org.uk/services/assessments
www.bdastore.org.uk/search.php?search_query=assessments&x=0&y=0
3.7 Assessing EAL learners
4.1 The Dyslexia Friendly Classroom
www.dystalk.com/talks/106-sen-teaching-and-class-sizes
www.tts-group.co.uk/blog/2016/10/06/how-to-create-a-dyslexia-friendly-classroom.html
www.bdadyslexia.org.uk/shop/books/dyslexia-friendly-schools-good-practice-guide-2nd-edition
www.bdadyslexia.org.uk/about/campaigns/initial-teacher-training
4.2 Whole school approaches
www.bdadyslexia.org.uk/about/projects/early-intervention-project-eip
www.sendgateway.org.uk/whole-school-send/
SEND_Code_of_Practice_January_2015.pdf
4.3 Supporting dyslexia pupils with reading
Adams 1990 Adams, M. J. (1990). Beginning to Read: Thinking and Learning about Print. Cambridge MA: MIT Press
Paulesu E., Demonet J. F., Fazio F., McCrory E., Chanoine V., Brunswick N., et al. (2001). Dyslexia: cultural diversity and biological unity. Science 291, 2165–2167. 10.1126/science.1057179
Landerl, K. et al. (2012) Predictors of developmental dyslexia in European orthographies with varying complexity. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry.
Predictors_of_developmental_dyslexia_in_European_orthographies_with_varying_complexity
www.bdadyslexia.org.uk/advice/children/how-can-i-support-my-child/reading
www.bdadyslexia.org.uk/common/ckeditor/filemanager/userfiles/Parent/technology-for-reading.pdf
4.7 Dyslexia and EAL
4.8 Resources and suppliers
www.thedyslexiashop.co.uk/resources
Assessment tools
www.bdadyslexia.org.uk/services/assessments
www.nhs.uk/conditions/dyslexia/diagnosis/
www.bdadyslexia.org.uk/dyslexia/how-is-dyslexia-diagnosed/dyslexia-screening
www.pearsonclinical.co.uk/Education/Assessments/Dyslexia/Dyslexia.aspx
http://framework.thedyslexia-spldtrust.org.uk/content/screening-and-assessment-toolkit
4.9 Assistive technology
www.dystalk.com/talks/102-the-use-of-mobile-phones-for-dyslexics
www.dystalk.com/talks/80-dyslexia-assistive-technology
4.10 Effective interventions
www.nhs.uk/conditions/dyslexia/living-with/
4.11 Top tips for teachers
www.bdadyslexia.org.uk/advice/educators
4.12 The Literacy and Dyslexia-SpLD Professional Development Framework
http://framework.thedyslexia-spldtrust.org.uk/
5.1 Seeking further advice
www.bdadyslexia.org.uk/educator/screening-and-assessment
www.nhs.uk/conditions/dyslexia/
www.bdadyslexia.org.uk/advice/children
www.bdadyslexia.org.uk/services/assessments
www.helenarkell.org.uk/about-us/what-we-do/assessments.php
5.2 Professional training courses
www.bdadyslexia.org.uk/services/professional-accreditation
www.helenarkell.org.uk/courses.php
5.3 Exam provisions
www.jcq.org.uk/exams-office/access-arrangements-and-special-consideration/regulations-and-guidance/
6.2 Dyslexia projects
www.bdadyslexia.org.uk/about/projects
What is dyslexia?
Dyslexia is a neurological difference with educational implications. It usually runs in families and is a life-long condition. It is a hidden disability thought to affect around 10% of the population, 4% severely.
Dyslexia is the most common of the Specific Learning Difficulties, a family of related conditions with considerable overlap or co-occurrence. Together these are believed to affect around 15% of people to a lesser or greater extent. Contrary to popular misconception, Dyslexia is not only about literacy, although weaknesses in literacy are often the most visible sign. Dyslexia affects the way information is processed, stored and retrieved, with problems of memory, speed of processing, time perception, organisation and sequencing.
Dyslexia is likely to co-occur with other Specific Learning Difficulties (SpLD), including Dyspraxia/Developmental Co-ordination Disorder (DCD), Dyscalculia, Attention Deficit Disorder (ADD), Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD), Autistic Spectrum Disorder (ASD) and Specific Language Impairment (SLI) – see below for links and further information about co-occurring difficulties.
For a number of different definitions of dyslexia, visit the BDA website, Dyslexia UK, Nessy and Wikipedia.
Theories of dyslexia (Fawcett)
A Framework for Understanding Dyslexia
This article reviews the various current theories of dyslexia, including:
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Cognitive theories (Phonological deficit - Bryant, Snowling, Stanovich; Automisation deficit - Nicolson & Fawcett; Double deficit - Wolf & Bower);
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Brain based theories (Sensory/Magnocellular deficit - Tallal, Stein; Cerebellar deficit - Nicolson & Fawcett);
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Neural systems level theories (Procedural Learning deficit - Nicolson & Fawcett).
An explanation is provided of how these various theories fit together.
The article also provides a brief overview of recent research.
Information about Dyslexia research is also available on this Wikipedia page.
Evidence (Fawcett)
An overview of the issues involved in providing evidence for educational practice. The article includes a discussion of the issues involved in controlled studies and considers how impact measures such as ration gains and effect sizes may be used to evidence improvement in intervention studies.
https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1111/j.1469-8749.2007.00306.x
Current research in dyslexia (Fawcett)
This article reviews current research in:
- Phonology
- RAN double deficit
- Sensory deficits
- Cerebellar deficits
It also provides an overview of areas for further research.
Co-occurring difficulties
Specific Learning Difficulties (SpLD) is an umbrella term used to cover a range of frequently co-occurring difficulties. SpLD affect the way information is learned and processed. They are neurological (rather than psychological), usually hereditary and occur independently of intelligence.
A range of studies have indicated high levels of overlap between dyslexia and other SpLD. This has led to the assertion by Kaplan (2001) that ‘in developmental disorders, co-morbidity is the rule, not the exception’.
For information about neurodiversity and co-occuring differences, see - neurodiversity-and-co-occurring-differences and is-my-student-dyslexic?
For an overview of the most common SpLD, see what-are-specific-learning-difficulties?
Short talks on a range of co-occurring difficulties are freely available at dysTalk.
Other useful websites:
Visual stress
While the role played by visual stress in dyslexia is much debated, nonetheless, many dyslexic individuals experience difficulties with visual issues.
The Dyslexia Research Trust, based at the University of Oxford and led by Professor John Stein, focuses on visual and auditory difficulties, as well as the effect of diet and nutrition on behaviour. You can find out more about their work and sign up to their newsletter, ‘Spotlight’, by following the above link to their website.
Another view of visual stress can be found at the website of the University of Essex Institute of Optometry, where Professor Bruce Evans is Director of Research.
For an overview of Mears-Irlen or Scotopic Sensitivity Syndrome, visit the UK Irlen website or the US Irlen website.
You may also find this short talk by Keith Holland on Visual Problems and Dyslexia useful.
The following pages provide further information about dyslexia and visual difficulties -
Dyslexic strengths
It is often said that no two dyslexic people are alike, and, therefore, it would be misleading to suggest that all dyslexic people share the same kind of strengths. Nonetheless, there are particular areas in which many dyslexic individuals excel. These include:
- Visual thinking
- 3D thinking
- Thinking ‘outside of the box’
- Seeing the ‘Big Picture’
- Problem solving
- Good imagination
- Creativity
- Good oral skills
The varied range of dyslexic strengths means that the list of famous and successful dyslexics is long and impressive, covering areas including science, inventing, exploration, art and design, architecture, business and entrepreneurship, acting and entertainment, writing, and music.
The challenge for the teacher of dyslexic pupils is to identify their strengths and to help them maximise these to achieve their potential.
There are numerous examples of video work by dyslexic people available on You Tube, and these are great sources of inspiration.
Also, look at websites dedicated to the many positive aspects of dyslexia, e.g.
The Yale Center for Dyslexia & Creativity
and the publications:
Positive Dyslexia by Roderick Nicolson (2015)
The Dyslexic Advantage: Unlocking the Hidden Potential of the Dyslexic Brain by Brock Eide (2011)
Dyslexia in languages other than English
Dyslexia exists in all languages and cultures; however, the degree to which the dyslexic learner may be affected is, to an extent, determined by the orthographic complexity of the language they are learning. Languages which are transparent (i.e. which have regular phoneme – grapheme correspondences) are likely to cause fewer problems for the dyslexic learner than those which are opaque (i.e. which feature irregular spellings and combinations of letters).
Children learning transparent languages, such as Italian, Spanish or German, are less likely to experience entrenched problems with decoding and encoding than those who are learning an opaque language such as English. Instead, these children may work at a slower rate than their peers but are likely to be able to achieve good levels of accuracy (Brunswick, N. ed. (2010) Reading and Dyslexia in Different Orthographies. Hove, Psychology Press).
The COST study (Seymour et al, 2003) examines the reading skills acquisition of children in 13 European languages and finds clear evidence to support the hypothesis that orthographic depth affects literacy learning.
For a report on Dyslexia and Multilingualism see : 'Dyslexia and Multilingualism: Identifying and supporting bilingual learners who might be at risk of developing SpLD/dyslexia'.
International organisations such as the International Dyslexia Association , Dyslexia International, and the European Dyslexia Association may be useful starting points for finding out more about support for dyslexic learners in countries other than the UK.
The following links provide further information about dyslexia and language:-
The myths and truths of dyslexia
Identification
Please be aware that the indicators listed in this column are only intended to be used as a checklist to provide a basic indication of whether or not an individual may be at risk of dyslexia. If you identify a cluster of difficulties and strengths, your next step should be to consult the school Special Needs Co-ordinator (SENCo) so that appropriate and immediate support can be put in place (see Column 5: Signposting for further intervention / assessment)
Pre-school level indicators
Although it may not be possible to screen accurately for dyslexia at pre-school level, nonetheless, there are a number of indicators which may predict later difficulties with language and literacy; see the BDA website.
For results of recent longitudinal study of children at high risk of dyslexia assessed from age 3 years, 6 months to 8 years, see Thompson et al (2015).
Early Help, Better Future by Jean Augur provides a short guide to early identification of dyslexia.
For further information on early indicators, see the BDA minibook, Dyslexia: Early Identification and the NHS website.
Download the Literacy Leap Early Years ‘At-Risk’ Checklist. This checklist may be used as a first step to investigate some of the early indicators that a child may be at risk of dyslexia or other specific learning difficulties (SpLD). Any concerns about a child should always be followed up by consulting a specialist teacher.
For further information about signs of dyslexia, see the following pages -
Primary level indicators
While it is important to remember that not all children who are struggling with literacy and language will have dyslexia or another SpLD, nonetheless, it is important to identify children who are at risk of failure so that appropriate interventions can be put in place before the child falls behind with their learning.
A list of indicators for children aged 7 - 11 can be found on the BDA website.
Download the Literacy Leap Primary School Dyslexia Checklist. This checklist may be used as a first step to investigate some of the indicators that a child may be at risk of dyslexia or other specific learning difficulties (SpLD). Any concerns about a child should always be followed up by consulting a specialist teacher.
Secondary level indicators
Identification of older learners is likely to be more complex as the pupil may have acquired a range of compensatory strategies which may mask their difficulties to an extent. A list of possible indicators of dyslexia/SpLD for pupils at secondary school level can be found on the BDA website.
Identification for adults
The Adult Checklist and Online Screener+ Profiler may be used by students over the age of 16 to identify dyslexic-type traits and also to provide suggestions to support dyslexic adults in education and employment.
The Do-It Profiler is an online screening tool for individuals aged 16+ which has been developed not only to identify traits and difficulties associated with dyslexia, but also to provide suggestions to help individuals maximize their strengths and potential.
Information on diagnostic assessments for adults and work based needs assessments can be found on the BDA webpages; both diagnostic assessments and Workplace Needs Assessments can be booked through the BDA Store.
A useful booklet for dyslexic trainees and teachers is produced by Southampton University and can be found here.
The following links provide further information about dyslexia identification in adults:-
www.readandspell.com/dyslexia-in-adults
www.helenarkell.org.uk/about-dyslexia/adults/what-are-the-indications-of-dyslexia-in-adults.php
Assessing EAL learners.
Assessing multilingual students who are learning English for dyslexia is problematic as standardized assessment tools are not valid in this case. An assessment tool designed specifically for EAL learners, from age 7 to adult, is available through ELT Well.
Dyslexia Friendly classroom teaching
A great many publications and resources are available which provide ideas for supporting dyslexic children at home and in the classroom. A collection of ideas recommended by Local Education Authorities throughout England as well as by a range of experts in the field are presented in the BDA Dyslexia Friendly Schools Good Practice Guide (2012).
For examples of how to create a dyslexia friendly classroom, see this handout from the SEND for Classroom Teachers training pack.
The Dyslexia Friendly Classroom
What is a dyslexia friendly classroom? The simplest explanation would be that this is a classroom that considers individual differences in the way children learn and teaches each child in a way that facilitates their development and growth to the best of their potential. The Dyslexia Friendly Classroom is one in which all children – not only those with dyslexia – are able to learn and thrive.
The BDA in partnership with the SpLD Trust have developed free materials for teacher training as part of a project funded by the Department for Education. These materials include a PowerPoint (of around 2 hours’ duration), teaching notes, and checklists covering the signs of dyslexia. The PowerPoint training includes:
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How to spot a dyslexic child in the classroom;
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How to teach in a dyslexia friendly way in the classroom;
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When to signpost for further possible intervention and assessment.
You can access these materials in the Initial Teacher Training section at http://www.bdadyslexia.org.uk/about/campaigns .
In her short talk, SEN: Teaching and Class Sizes, Anastasia de Waal, discusses making classrooms more effective for children with SEN.
For a range of resources for educators, including an abridged copy of the BDA Dyslexia Friendly Schools Good Practice Guide, go to the BDA website.
The full version of the BDA Dyslexia Friendly Schools Good Practice Guide is available for purchase at the BDA store.
For further tips on how to create a dyslexia friendly classroom, see the following liks: -
For advice and information on the acoustic properties of classrooms, see the MESH Guide to Acoustic accessibility.
Whole school approaches
Literacy Leap is a new, three-tier certification framework for primary schools which celebrates and encourages best practice in identifying and supporting children at risk of dyslexia and other SpLD. The framework is designed to act as a series of stepping stones towards the Dyslexia Friendly Quality Mark award. For information and training materials for the award, see Early Intervention Project.
The BDA Dyslexia Friendly Quality Mark for schools aims to provide a rigorous framework through which schools can achieve dyslexia friendly status. The award is recognised internationally as well as in the UK and is made up of standards covering four key areas: Leadership and Management; The Quality of Learning; Creating a Climate for Learning; and Partnership and Liaison with Parents, Carers, Governors and other concerned parties. The purpose of the Quality Mark is to set a standard ensuring that the needs of dyslexic pupils are met across all elements of the school and that resources are available to meet these needs.
The Council for the Registration of Schools Teaching Dyslexia Pupils (CReSTeD schools) lists schools in the UK which have met their criteria for supporting children with SpLD.
Statutory guidance for schools in England on duties, policies and procedures relating to children and young people with special educational needs (SEN) is contained with the SEND Code of Practice (2014).
For further information about whole school approaches, see the following links: -
www.patoss-dyslexia.org/write/MediaUploads/4765_BDA_Case_Study_Document_Secondary.pdf
actiondyslexia.co.uk/downloads/DyslexiaintheSecondarySchool.pdf
www.drgavinreid.com/free-resources/dyslexia-teaching-approaches/
nasen.org.uk/uploads/assets/e227fce8-87f7-4630-bc4606a87e2bec53/Supporting-pupils-with-SlD.pdf
Supporting dyslexic pupils with reading
As dyslexia is widely linked to difficulties with phonological processing, it should not be surprising that reading is one of the areas with which dyslexic individuals may struggle. Phonemic awareness is often cited as one of the most powerful predictors of success in learning to read (see, for example, Adams, 1990).
Although dyslexic children from all linguistic backgrounds are likely to experience some degree of difficulty with reading, it is recognised that the greater the orthographic complexity of the language, the greater the problems that dyslexic learners will face (Paulesu et al, 2001; Landerl et al, 2012). Thus, children learning to read in English encounter greater challenges than those learning to read a more orthographically transparent language such as Italian or Spanish.
Teachers should be aware that visual stress issues may be at the root of reading difficulties. Many dyslexic individuals with visual stress issues find that their reading skills are greatly helped when they use a coloured filter or tinted paper. Use of a dyslexia friendly sans serif font can also help dyslexic pupils (see BDA Style Guide for advice on dyslexia friendly ways of presenting information). Providing materials in an electronic format allows students to change font type and size, background colour, and even to use text-to-speech software to listen to the text being read.
Prior to learning literacy, children can be helped to develop phonological skills through activities such as reciting poems and nursery rhymes, singing and clapping along to songs, or playing word games.
Difficulties for dyslexic children are likely to become apparent at the alphabetic stage of reading, when they are required to learn the phonemic code. At this stage, a range of difficulties may have an impact on a child’s ability to learn literacy skills. For a child who is struggling, it will be necessary to check if difficulties are associated with visual issues, hearing difficulties, or speech and language problems.
For all dyslexic children, a learning programme which is structured, cumulative and multisensory will be essential. Progress for dyslexic children is likely to be much slower than for their peers, and a great deal of repetition and over-learning is likely to be required in order to achieve automaticity in decoding.
The implications of slow, laboured reading are far-reaching. Dyslexic children who read less than their peers are likely to have a narrower knowledge of vocabulary; therefore, for older learners, explicit vocabulary instruction may be necessary when preparing to read a more linguistically demanding text. To help dyslexic learners cope with longer words, a focus on syllabification and morphology will be useful so that they learn to break these words into smaller units (‘chunking’ skills).
Equally, students whose reading speeds are slow are likely to find it more difficult to take in the meaning of text, and these difficulties will be exacerbated as levels of complexity increase. Therefore, teachers should be prepared to allow dyslexic pupils extra time to read texts in preparation for lessons. It will also be useful to teach techniques such as skimming to understand the gist of a text or scanning to find key ideas and vocabulary; highlighting key ideas; looking out for signposting words (e.g. therefore, however); or drawing diagrams or mind-maps to create a visual representation of the text.
Many of the difficulties associated with reading can be helped by using appropriate technology. Information on technology for reading: A guide for learners and their families can be found here.
For further information on how to support dyslexic pupils with reading, see the following links:-
https://dyslexiaida.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/01/DITC-Handbook.pdf
https://www.nessy.com/uk/teachers/essential-teaching-tips-dyslexia/
Supporting dyslexic pupils with writing
Co-occurring difficulties such as dyspraxia may affect dyslexic children in the early stages of learning to write. Various products are available commercially which may help pupils who find it difficult to hold a pencil or pen comfortably (see 4.8 Resources and suppliers). Sloping desk tops can also help pupils to find a comfortable position for writing.
As with all other areas of learning, repetition and over-learning are key to success; however, a small number of children may experience such extreme difficulties that, in order to achieve the speed of writing required for success in the education system, use of a computer may be the best course of action. In this case, lessons in touch typing will help the pupil to achieve the levels of writing fluency required.
Many dyslexic individuals become reluctant writers not only because of their difficulties with the physical act of writing but also because of their issues with spelling. During primary education it is crucial that these difficulties are not allowed to prevent the dyslexic child from expressing their ideas. Group writing work or the use of alternative methods of recording ideas (e.g. graphic stories, diagrams, mind-maps) may help to overcome difficulties with getting ideas down on paper and ensure that confidence and self-esteem are not affected adversely.
Difficulties with getting started or with organising ideas can also be helped by providing a writing frame or scaffold, which can gradually be withdrawn as the pupil becomes more confident and proficient. Mind-maps, flow-charts, or other diagrams can be used to record ideas and experiment with structure prior to producing a piece of written work.
Teachers should also be aware that restricted experience of reading is likely to have an impact on the written work of dyslexic pupils. Because of this, teachers will need to provide explicit input on key vocabulary (including spelling) and the grammar and punctuation associated with conjunctions and signposting words. Using a text as a model to help pupils ‘notice’ how cohesive devices are used to provide structure and coherence can also be a useful activity.
Marking written work is something that should be approached with great sensitivity. A dyslexic pupil may have struggled to produce their work and it is essential for teachers not to belittle their efforts or to accuse them of ‘not trying’. If spelling is a particular issue, a focus on the positive aspects of the writing, such as quality of ideas or ambition in attempting to use difficult vocabulary, will be more encouraging and, ultimately, provide a better learning experience.
Regarding writing as a process instead of emphasising the finished product is also beneficial. A series of drafts with formative feedback provided along the way, can ensure that every piece of writing becomes a fruitful learning experience which increases, instead of diminishing, the confidence of the dyslexic learner.
For more information and ideas, see the MESH Guide to Reluctant Writers or download The Big Write Day, a set of PowerPoint slides showing examples of dyslexia friendly writing activities and pupils’ work from a whole school writing day organized by Holy Name Primary in Manchester.
Supporting dyslexic pupils with spelling
Spelling is one of the greatest and most entrenched difficulties for children and adults with dyslexia. Many children with dyslexia will improve their reading skills but their spelling will remain severely impaired. The type of error that dyslexic people make is likely to be more extreme than others, and they do not seem to have the ability to write down the word and then check that it is right.
It is not entirely clear what the basis of this difficulty is, although the orthographic complexity of the English language certainly plays a major role. This complexity means that knowledge of regular phoneme/grapheme correspondences are inadequate for tackling all of the words in the English language. Learners also need to have a knowledge of sight-words (e.g. the, said, was) and irregular spelling patterns (e.g. light, night fight, etc).
In order to spell words correctly, we have to be sure that children are hearing the individual sounds of the word correctly. We also have to be sure that sounds are being remembered in the correct order. These skills can be challenging for pupils who are experiencing difficulties with phonological processing and memory. A great deal of rehearsal and repetition may be required to practise auditory discrimination and to fix a clear representation of a word in the auditory memory of the dyslexic child.
For younger learners, multisensory over-learning again plays a key role. Children can be encouraged to write letters and words in sand trays, on each other’s backs, or in the air, while naming the letters out loud. (NB – because of the irregularity of the English language, it is more effective for children to spell out loud using letter names rather than by ‘sounding out’ the letters – think of the problems that arise if a child sounds out the word ‘was’ using regular phoneme-grapheme correspondences). Note, too, that cursive writing should be introduced at as early a stage as possible in order to aid the development of motor memory.
As children are required to spell longer words, they will need to develop an awareness and understanding of syllables. Singing (notice how each syllable usually has its own note), or clapping and tapping syllables will help pupils to hear individual syllables. Pointing out that a syllable almost always contains a vowel or vowel blend may help children who have a tendency to omit vowels from words.
Many irregular spellings in the English language fall into ‘word families’ (e.g. tough, rough, enough). Grouping such words together or asking pupils to draw a picture to represent words from the same family will help to reinforce these spelling patterns.
As vocabulary become more complex, explicit teaching of affixes and spelling rules associated with affixation will help. Cutting up words or using colour coding to emphasise prefixes, roots, and suffixes provides an effective visual device to reinforce memory.
Older dyslexic learners may also appreciate learning about the derivation of words and their spelling – again, this helps to provide a memory peg.
Further ideas and information about teaching spelling can be found in the MESH Guide to Spelling.
Dyslexia & Maths
Dyslexia often causes problems with understanding the language of maths, particularly in English, where so many synonyms exist to describe mathematical functions. For example, synonyms for ‘subtract’ might include ‘minus’, ‘take away’, ‘less than’, ‘fewer than’, ‘take(n) from’, ‘difference’, etc.
Difficulties may also be encountered where a maths problem involves reading a long and complicated question.
Co-occurring difficulties such as short term and/or working memory deficits, dyscalculia and dyspraxia can compound these issues.
For information on supporting children who have difficulty with the language of maths and for recognizing the signs of dyscalculia, see MESHGuide Dyscalculia
Dyslexia and EAL
Information about dyslexia and multilingualism in a range of European countries (Bulgaria, the Czech Republic, Italy, Switzerland, Turkey, the UK, and Wales) can be found on the Dyslang website.
The Big Lottery funded project, Dyslexia and Multilingualism, led by the British Dyslexia Association in partnership with Bath Spa University, examined the issues involved in screening and assessing bilingual children for SpLD/dyslexia and trialled and examined the impact of a 30 minute daily intervention programme delivered over a period of 1 weeks.
The BDA Dyslexia Friendly Schools Good Practice Guide contains a useful chapter on Dyslexia and Multilingualism which explores factors to be taken into account when working with multilingual children.
A free self-study course for teachers of English as a Foreign Language is available on the DysTEFL website. Materials are available in English, Czech, German, Polish, and Hungarian.
Assessing multilingual students who are learning English for dyslexia is problematic as standardized assessment tools are not valid in this case. An assessment tool designed specifically for EAL learners, from age 7 to adult, is available through ELT Well.
For further information on dyslexia and multilingualism, see the following links:-
www.patoss-dyslexia.org/events/multilingualism-eal-and-dyslexia-an-introduction/5607?OccId=8004
Resources and suppliers
Assistive technology
The British Dyslexia Association New Technologies Committee webpages provide information and reviews of the latest products designed to help dyslexic people. An Overview of Assistive Learning e-learning course can be booked here.
Assistive technologies to help with a range of difficulties are explored on Dyslexia Action’s webpages.
The dysTalk website includes short talks on The use of mobile phones for dyslexics and Dyslexia Assistive Technology.
The following pages provide further information about assistive technology:-
www.dyslexia.uk.net/services/assistive-technology/
www.dyslexic.com/blog/how-can-assistive-technology-support-dyslexia/
www.texthelp.com/en-gb/products/read-write/assistive-technology-dyslexia-software/
https://eprints.soton.ac.uk/264143/1/Draffan%252CEvans%252C_Blenkhorn_final_copy.pdf
Effective interventions
What works for children and young people with literacy difficulties? 5th ed. (Greg Brooks, 2016) is a free to download publication which provides an overview of interventions which have been proven to be effective. Schemes included in the publication are selected according to a rigorous set of criteria so that teachers can be confident of their effectiveness.
The Dyslexia SpLD Trust has developed an online search tool of evidence based interventions, this and other resources can be accessed here.
Top tips for teachers
Everyone will have their own favourite top tips, but those listed on page 32 of the abridged Dyslexia Friendly Schools Good Practice Guide, from Leicester City Council, have been tried and tested, so we know they work!
The following sites also provide some useful tips:-
www.nessy.com/uk/teachers/essential-teaching-tips-dyslexia/
www.dyslexiascotland.org.uk/sites/default/files/page_content/howteacherscanhelp.pdf
Continuing Professional Development
The Literacy and Dyslexia-SpLD Professional Development Framework is a free to use online tool which is designed to act as a ‘road-map’ of the levels of knowledge and skills required across the education workforce to support all learners with dyslexia/SpLD. It can be used as a self-assessment tool to identify areas for professional development, and/or as a resource base to suggest materials for you and your educational setting. Materials include:
- Training manual
- Graduated approach template
- Certificates of Professional Development
Seeking further advice
When a pupil fails to thrive or make progress in spite of receiving a well-founded intervention programme, or when a screening test indicates a high probability of dyslexia, a full diagnostic assessment should be considered.
Diagnostic assessments should always be conducted by a properly qualified, certified assessor. This will be either an Educational Psychologist or an AMBDA qualified specialist teacher. For advice on finding an assessor in the UK, see the BDA website or the PATOSS Tutor/Assessor Index.
Assessments are provided by the BDA and Helen Arkell centres.
Further advice can also be found on the following sites :-
Professional training courses
Teachers who are interested in becoming a specialist dyslexia teacher or dyslexia assessor can find information about training courses and professional accreditation on the BDA and Helen Arkell websites.
Exam provisions
Children and young people in the UK who are identified as having SEN or SpLD are entitled to access arrangements and reasonable adjustments during exams. These adjustments range from additional time in exams to the provision of a scribe/reader or computer based assistance.
Details of these adjustments are published each year by the Joint Council for Qualifications (JCQ) and are freely available online.
